The effect of selenium deficiency on thyroid deiodinase activity and the severity of oxidative stress in autoimmune thyroid diseases: a review of the literature
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.20883/medical.e1633Keywords:
selenoproteins, glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin reductase, Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, Graves' disease, trace element supplementationAbstract
Background. Selenium is a trace element of crucial importance for thyroid physiology, acting mainly through its incorporation into functionally specialised proteins, including the iodothyronine deiodinases and several enzymes engaged in antioxidant defence. Growing clinical and experimental data link suboptimal selenium status with an increased risk of autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITDs), particularly Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease and postpartum thyroid dysfunction.
Methods. A structured search of the PubMed/MEDLINE database was performed using keywords related to selenium, deiodinases, oxidative stress and autoimmune thyroid disorders. The analysis primarily included English-language articles, with one regionally relevant Polish publication. Priority was given to randomised controlled trials, meta-analyses and large observational studies. Animal studies were included only where human data were insufficient.
Results. Selenium deficiency lowers DIO1 and DIO2 activity, impairing peripheral conversion of thyroxine to the active triiodothyronine. A concurrent decline in glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase activity promotes oxidative stress in thyrocytes and may amplify immune-mediated tissue injury. Clinical trials show that selenium supplementation (100–200 µg/day) can reduce anti-thyroid peroxidase antibody titres in Hashimoto's thyroiditis, improve mild Graves' orbitopathy and decrease postpartum thyroid dysfunction in women with positive thyroid antibodies.
Conclusions. Adequate selenium status is essential for thyroid hormone homeostasis and for limiting oxidative damage in AITDs. Selenium supplementation may benefit certain patients, particularly those in selenium-deficient populations. Nevertheless, its narrow therapeutic window and considerable genetic variability in selenium metabolism require individualised supplementation.
Downloads
References
Bano I, Hassan MF, Kieliszek M. A comprehensive review of selenium as a key regulator in thyroid health. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2025;203(12):6466–6480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-025-04653-7. PMID: 40358914. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-025-04653-7
Maia LB, Maiti BK, Moura I, Moura JJG. Selenium—more than just a fortuitous sulfur substitute in redox biology. Molecules. 2023;29(1):120. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29010120. PMID: 38202704. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29010120
Wang F, Li C, Li S, Cui L, Zhao J, Liao L. Selenium and thyroid diseases. Front Endocrinol. 2023;14:1133000. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1133000. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1133000
Zhang Y, Zhang Q, Wei B, Wang W, Chen X, Ding W, et al. SEPHS2 loss reprograms cancer metabolism from oxidative phosphorylation to gluconeogenesis via PCK1 stabilization. Cell Rep. 2026;45(5):117297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2026.117297. PMID: 42035418. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2026.117297
Kieliszek M, Bano I. Selenium as an important factor in various disease states—a review. EXCLI J. 2022;21:948–966. https://doi.org/10.17179/excli2022-5137. PMID: 36172072.
Mojadadi A, Au A, Salah W, Witting P, Ahmad G. Role for selenium in metabolic homeostasis and human reproduction. Nutrients. 2021;13(9):3256. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093256. PMID: 34579133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13093256
Kochman J, Jakubczyk K, Bargiel P, Janda-Milczarek K. The influence of oxidative stress on thyroid diseases. Antioxidants (Basel). 2021;10(9):1442. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10091442. PMID: 34573074. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10091442
Rovcanin B, Stojsavljevic A, Kekic D, Gopcevic K, Manojlovic D, Jovanovic M, et al. Redox status and antioxidative cofactor metals influence clinical and pathological characteristics of papillary thyroid carcinoma and colloid goiter. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2020;197(2):349–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-019-01995-x. PMID: 31811573. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-019-01995-x
Eckert JV, Rogers LK, Tipple TE, Mathias M. Selenium in the preterm infant: are we supplementing enough in this vulnerable population? Nutrients. 2026;18(8):1271. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18081271. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18081271
National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. Selenium—Health Professional Fact Sheet. Bethesda (MD): NIH Office of Dietary Supplements; 2024. Available from: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Selenium-HealthProfessional/
Wang M, Li B, Li S, Song Z, Kong F, Zhang X. Selenium in wheat from farming to food. J Agric Food Chem. 2021;69(51):15458–15467. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c04992. PMID: 34907773. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c04992
Stefanowicz FA, Talwar D, O'Reilly DS, Dickinson N, Atkinson J, Hursthouse AS, et al. Erythrocyte selenium concentration as a marker of selenium status. Clin Nutr. 2013;32(5):837–842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2013.01.005. PMID: 23391458. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2013.01.005
Hadrup N, Ravn-Haren G. Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) of oral selenium from organic and inorganic sources: a review. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2021;67:126801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2021.126801. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2021.126801
Huang J, Xie L, Song A, Zhang C. Selenium status and its antioxidant role in metabolic diseases. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2022;2022:7009863. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7009863. PMID: 35847596. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7009863
Bai S, Zhang M, Tang S, Li M, Wu R, Wan S, et al. Effects and impact of selenium on human health: a review. Molecules. 2024;30(1):50. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30010050. PMID: 39795109. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30010050
Seale LA, Hashimoto AC, Kurokawa S, Berry MJ. Sexual dimorphism in selenium metabolism and selenoproteins. Free Radic Biol Med. 2018;127:198–205. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2018.03.036
EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA), Turck D, Bohn T, et al. Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for selenium. EFSA J. 2023;21(1):e07704. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7704. PMID: 36698500. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7704
Hurst R, Armah CN, Dainty JR, Hart DJ, Teucher B, Goldson AJ, et al. Establishing optimal selenium status: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(4):923–931. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28169. PMID: 20181815. PMCID: PMC2844680. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28169
Cornelis MC, Fornage M, Foy M, Xun P, Gladyshev VN, Morris S, et al. Genome-wide association study of selenium concentrations. Hum Mol Genet. 2015;24(5):1469–1477. https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddu546. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddu546
Ferreira RR, Carvalho RV, Coelho LL, Gonzaga BMS, Bonecini-Almeida MDG, Garzoni LR, et al. Current understanding of human polymorphism in selenoprotein genes: a review of its significance as a risk biomarker. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(3):1402. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25031402. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25031402
Wang L, Sagada G, Wang R, Li P, Xu B, Zhang C, et al. Different forms of selenium supplementation in fish feed: the bioavailability, nutritional functions, and potential toxicity. Aquaculture. 2022;549:737819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.737819. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.737819
Battin EE, Zimmerman MT, Ramoutar RR, Quarles CE, Brumaghim JL. Preventing metal-mediated oxidative DNA damage with selenium compounds. Metallomics. 2011;3(5):503–512. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0mt00063a. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/c0mt00063a
Bisht N, Phalswal P, Khanna PK. Selenium nanoparticles: a review on synthesis and biomedical applications. Mater Adv. 2022;3:1415–1431. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1MA00659B. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D1MA00639H
Sentkowska A, Pyrzyńska K. The influence of synthesis conditions on the antioxidant activity of selenium nanoparticles. Molecules. 2022;27(8):2486. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27082486. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27082486
Tan Y, Zhang F, Cao J, Feng L, Xie B, Gao L, et al. GPX1-driven selenium nanoplatform reprograms MAMs-mediated organelle crosstalk to reverse inflammatory adipose expansion in thyroid eye disease. Theranostics. 2025 Aug 30;15(18):9601-9622. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.117582. PMID: 41041063; PMCID: PMC12486268. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.117582
Zou X, Jiang Z, Li L, Huang Z. Selenium nanoparticles coated with pH responsive silk fibroin complex for fingolimod release and enhanced targeting in thyroid cancer. Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol. 2021 Dec;49(1):83-95. https://doi.org/10.1080/21691401.2021.1871620. PMID: 33438446. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21691401.2021.1871620
Köhrle J. Selenium, iodine and iron—essential trace elements for thyroid hormone synthesis and metabolism. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(4):3393. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043393. PMID: 36834802. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24043393
Gladyshev VN, Arnér ES, Berry MJ, Brigelius-Flohé R, Bruford EA, Burk RF, et al. Selenoprotein gene nomenclature. J Biol Chem. 2016;291(46):24036–24040. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M116.756155. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M116.756155
Pitts MW, Hoffmann PR. Endoplasmic reticulum-resident selenoproteins as regulators of calcium signaling and homeostasis. Cell Calcium. 2018;70:76–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceca.2017.05.001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceca.2017.05.001
Labunskyy VM, Hatfield DL, Gladyshev VN. Selenoproteins: molecular pathways and physiological roles. Physiol Rev. 2014;94(3):739–777. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00039.2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00039.2013
Minnetti M, Sada V, Feola T, Giannetta E, Pozza C, Gianfrilli D, et al. Selenium supplementation in pregnant women with autoimmune thyroiditis: a practical approach. Nutrients. 2022;14(11):2234. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14112234. PMID: 35684035. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14112234
Gorini F, Sabatino L, Pingitore A, Vassalle C. Selenium: An Element of Life Essential for Thyroid Function. Molecules. 2021 Nov 23;26(23):7084. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26237084. PMID: 34885664; PMCID: PMC8658851. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26237084
De Stefano MA, Porcelli T, Schlumberger M, Salvatore D. Deiodinases in thyroid tumorigenesis. Endocr Relat Cancer. 2023;30(5):e230015. https://doi.org/10.1530/ERC-23-0015. PMID: 36862025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1530/ERC-23-0015
Lopes SO, Mayer EM, Azevedo FM, Candido AC, Bittencourt JM, Morais DC, et al. Nutritional Status of Iodine and Association with Iron, Selenium, and Zinc in Population Studies: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients. 2025 Oct 31;17(21):3432. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17213432. PMID: 41228503; PMCID: PMC12608380. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17213432
Köhrle J, Frädrich C. Deiodinases control local cellular and systemic thyroid hormone availability. Free Radic Biol Med. 2022 Nov 20;193(Pt 1):59-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.09.024. Epub 2022 Oct 4. PMID: 36206932. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.09.024
Sabatino L, Vassalle C, Del Seppia C, Iervasi G. Deiodinases and the Three Types of Thyroid Hormone Deiodination Reactions. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul). 2021 Oct;36(5):952-964. https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2021.1198. Epub 2021 Oct 21. PMID: 34674502; PMCID: PMC8566136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2021.1198
Zhang F, Li X, Wei Y. Selenium and selenoproteins in health. Biomolecules. 2023;13(5):799. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13050799. PMID: 37238669. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biom13050799
Kieliszek M, Sapazhenkava K. The Promising Role of Selenium and Yeast in the Fight Against Protein Amyloidosis. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2025 Mar;203(3):1251-1268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-024-04245-x. Epub 2024 Jun 3. PMID: 38829477; PMCID: PMC11872778. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-024-04245-x
Kieliszek M. Selenium: From Redox Signaling to Interactions with the Gut Microbiome. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2026 May 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-026-05132-3. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 42062664. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-026-05132-3
Wąsowicz W, Gromadzińska J, Rydzyński K, Tomczak J. Selenium status of low-selenium area residents: Polish experience. Toxicol Lett. 2003;137(1–2):95–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-4274(02)00382-2. PMID: 12505435. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4274(02)00383-1
Wu Q, Rayman MP, Lv H, Schomburg L, Cui B, Gao C, et al. Low population selenium status is associated with increased prevalence of thyroid disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100(11):4037–4047. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-2222. PMID: 26305620. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-2222
Derumeaux H, Valeix P, Castetbon K, Bensimon M, Boutron-Ruault MC, Arnaud J, et al. Association of selenium with thyroid volume and echostructure in 35- to 60-year-old French adults. Eur J Endocrinol. 2003;148(3):309–315. https://doi.org/10.1530/eje.0.1480309. PMID: 12611611. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1530/eje.0.1480309
Pirola I, Gandossi E, Agosti B, Delbarba A, Cappelli C. Selenium supplementation could restore euthyroidism in subclinical hypothyroid patients with autoimmune thyroiditis. Endokrynol Pol. 2016;67(6):567–571. https://doi.org/10.5603/EP.2016.0064. PMID: 28042649. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5603/EP.2016.0064
Ortarzewska M, Nijakowski K, Jankowski J, Sawicka-Gutaj N, Ruchała M, Surdacka A. Periodontal disease in patients with thyroid diseases: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Adv Med Sci. 2024;69(2):289–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advms.2024.06.003. PMID: 38908794. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advms.2024.06.003
Czarnywojtek A, Florek E, Pietrończyk K, Sawicka-Gutaj N, Ruchała M, Ronen O, et al. The role of vitamin D in autoimmune thyroid diseases: a narrative review. J Clin Med. 2023;12(4):1452. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12041452. PMID: 36835987. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12041452
Duntas LH. The caprices of a trace element: selenium's considerable effects on Hashimoto's thyroiditis, though few on Graves' disease. Eur Thyroid J. 2026;15(1):ETJ260009. https://doi.org/10.1530/ETJ-26-0009. PMID: 41677203. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1530/ETJ-26-0009
Bogusławska J, Godlewska M, Gajda E, Piekiełko-Witkowska A. Cellular and molecular basis of thyroid autoimmunity. Eur Thyroid J. 2022;11(1):e210024. https://doi.org/10.1530/ETJ-21-0024. PMID: 34981746. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1530/ETJ-21-0024
Li JR, Hong FY, Zeng JY, Huang GL. Functional interleukin-17 receptor A are present in the thyroid gland in intractable Graves disease. Cell Immunol. 2013;281(1):85–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellimm.2013.02.002. PMID: 23501056. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellimm.2013.02.002
Zuo Y, Li Y, Gu X, Lei Z. The correlation between selenium levels and autoimmune thyroid disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Palliat Med. 2021;10(4):4398–4408. https://doi.org/10.21037/apm-21-449. PMID: 33894732. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21037/apm-21-449
He H, Jiang Y, Qiu J, Shen F, Qian D, Meng L. Role of interleukin 17 and T helper cells 17 cells as a new immune target and signalling in the pathogenesis and treatment of autoimmune thyroid diseases. Ann Med. 2025;57(1):2586216. https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2025.2586216. PMID: 41243116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2025.2586216
Huang Z, Zhang J, Chen S, Mao M, Wang B. Expression levels of interleukin-17 and interferon-γ in peripheral blood and relationship with thyroid function in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Front Mol Biosci. 2025;12:1645736. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2025.1645736. PMID: 41113857. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2025.1645736
Li S, Xu Q, Wang S, Peng H, Liu Y. Recent advances of trace elements in autoimmune thyroid disease. Front Immunol. 2025;16:1662521. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2025.1662521. PMID: 41383597. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2025.1662521
Avery JC, Hoffmann PR. Selenium, Selenoproteins, and Immunity. Nutrients. 2018 Sep 1;10(9):1203. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10091203. PMID: 30200430; PMCID: PMC6163284. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10091203
Mazokopakis EE, Papadakis JA, Papadomanolaki MG, Batistakis AG, Giannakopoulos TG, Protopapadakis EE, et al. Effects of 12 months treatment with L-selenomethionine on serum anti-TPO levels in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Thyroid. 2007;17(7):609–612. https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2007.0040. PMID: 17696828. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2007.0040
Turker O, Kumanlioglu K, Karapolat I, Dogan I. Selenium treatment in autoimmune thyroiditis: 9-month follow-up with variable doses. J Endocrinol. 2006;190(1):151–156. https://doi.org/10.1677/joe.1.06661. PMID: 16837619. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1677/joe.1.06661
Toulis KA, Anastasilakis AD, Tzellos TG, Goulis DG, Kouvelas D. Selenium supplementation in the treatment of Hashimoto's thyroiditis: a systematic review and a meta-analysis. Thyroid. 2010;20(10):1163–1173. https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2009.0351. PMID: 20883174. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2009.0351
Negro R, Greco G, Mangieri T, Pezzarossa A, Dazzi D, Hassan H. The influence of selenium supplementation on postpartum thyroid status in pregnant women with thyroid peroxidase autoantibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(4):1263–1268. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2006-1821. PMID: 17284630. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2006-1821
Mantovani G, Isidori AM, Moretti C, Di Dato C, Greco E, Ciolli P, et al. Selenium supplementation in the management of thyroid autoimmunity during pregnancy: results of the "SERENA study", a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Endocrine. 2019;66(3):542–550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-019-01958-1. PMID: 31129812. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-019-01958-1
Marcocci C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, Bartalena L, Prummel M, Stahl M, et al. Selenium and the course of mild Graves' orbitopathy. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(20):1920–1931. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1012985. PMID: 21591944. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1012985
Rozwandowicz AM, Stuss M, Michalska-Kasiczak M, Sewerynek E. Body composition analysis in patients with Hashimoto's disease and vitamin D deficiency. J Med Sci. 2024;93(4):e1084. https://doi.org/10.20883/medical.e1084. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20883/medical.e1084
Włochal M, Kucharski MA, Grzymisławski M. The effects of vitamins and trace minerals on chronic autoimmune thyroiditis. J Med Sci. 2014;83(2):167–172. https://doi.org/10.20883/medical.e63. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20883/medical.e63
Socha K, Dziemianowicz M, Omeljaniuk W. Nawyki żywieniowe a stężenie selenu w surowicy u pacjentów z chorobą Hashimoto [Dietary habits and serum selenium concentrations in patients with Hashimoto's disease]. Probl Hig Epidemiol. 2012;93(4):824–827. [in Polish]
Huwiler VV, Maissen-Abgottspon S, Stanga Z, Mühlebach S, Trepp R, Bally L, et al. Selenium Supplementation in Patients with Hashimoto Thyroiditis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. Thyroid. 2024 Mar;34(3):295-313. https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2023.0556. Epub 2024 Feb 16. PMID: 38243784; PMCID: PMC10951571. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2023.0556
Sawicka-Gutaj N, Gruszczyński D, Zawalna N, Nijakowski K, Skiba A, Pochylski M, et al. Safety of non-standard regimen of systemic steroid therapy in patients with Graves' orbitopathy: a single-centre experience. Pharmacol Rep. 2024;76(1):185–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43440-023-00567-0. PMID: 38273183. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43440-023-00567-0
Olejarz M, Szczepanek-Parulska E, Dadej D, Sawicka-Gutaj N, Domin R, Ruchała M. IgG4 as a biomarker in Graves' orbitopathy. Mediators Inflamm. 2021;2021:5590471. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5590471. PMID: 34220335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5590471
Owji N, Moradi F, Khalili MR, Jahanbani-Ardakani H. Serum selenium levels in patients with Graves' disease with or without thyroid ophthalmopathy. Endocr Pract. 2022;28(12):1216–1220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eprac.2022.09.001. PMID: 36116714. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eprac.2022.09.001
Kim TH, Ko J, Kim BR, Shin DY, Lee EJ, Yoon JS. Serum selenium levels in patients with Graves' disease: associations with clinical activity and severity in a retrospective case-control study. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2022;36(1):36–43. https://doi.org/10.3341/kjo.2021.0146. PMID: 34743487. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3341/kjo.2021.0146
Czarnywojtek A, Ochmańska A, Zgorzalewicz-Stachowiak M, Sawicka-Gutaj N, Matyjaszek-Matuszek B, Woźniak M, et al. Influence of SARS-CoV-2 infection on thyroid gland function: the current knowledge. Adv Clin Exp Med. 2021;30(7):747–755. https://doi.org/10.17219/acem/139622. PMID: 34286519. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17219/acem/139622
Peng CC, Pearce EN. An update on thyroid disorders in the postpartum period. J Endocrinol Invest. 2022;45(8):1497–1506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40618-022-01762-1. PMID: 35181848. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40618-022-01762-1
Nicholson WK, Robinson KA, Smallridge RC, Ladenson PW, Powe NR. Prevalence of postpartum thyroid dysfunction: a quantitative review. Thyroid. 2006;16(6):573–582. https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2006.16.573. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2006.16.573
Duntas LH. Selenium and at-risk pregnancy: challenges and controversies. Thyroid Res. 2020;13:16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13044-020-00090-x. PMID: 33014140. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13044-020-00090-x
Calcaterra V, Cena H, Scavone IAM, Zambon I, Taranto S, Ricciardi Rizzo C, et al. Thyroid health and selenium: the critical role of adequate intake from fetal development to adolescence. Nutrients. 2025;17(14):2362. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17142362. PMID: 40732987. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17142362
Kazi Tani LS, Dennouni-Medjati N, Toubhans B, Charlet L. Selenium deficiency—From soil to thyroid cancer. Appl Sci (Basel). 2020;10(15):5368. doi:10.3390/app10155368. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app10155368
Hao R, Yu P, Gui L, Wang N, Pan D, Wang S. Relationship between Serum Levels of Selenium and Thyroid Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutr Cancer. 2023;75(1):14-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/01635581.2022.2115082. Epub 2022 Aug 22. PMID: 35996814. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01635581.2022.2115082
de Oliveira Maia M, Batista BAM, Sousa MP, de Souza LM, Maia CSC. Selenium and thyroid cancer: a systematic review. Nutr Cancer. 2020;72(8):1255-1263. https://doi.org/10.1080/01635581.2019.1679194. Epub 2019 Oct 22. PMID: 31635488. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01635581.2019.1679194
Kazi Tani LS, Dennouni-Medjati N, Medjahedi A, Rahou Z, Harek Y, Dali-Sahi M, et al. Selenium deficiency as potential risk factor for thyroid carcinoma: Results from a Western Algerian population. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2026;95:127882. doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2026.127882. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2026.127882
Ge S, Zhao J, Yao J, Fu H, Tian Y, Shan Y, et al. The association between serum selenium levels and pathological features of papillary thyroid cancer in 284 patients. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2023 Nov 3;14:1242250. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1242250. PMID: 38027150; PMCID: PMC10656612. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1242250
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 The copyright to the submitted manuscript is held by the Author, who grants the Journal of Medical Science (JMS) a nonexclusive licence to use, reproduce, and distribute the work, including for commercial purposes.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
